The definitions presented here are primarily from the U. S. Department of Energy. In the case of duplicate definitions, the DOE definitions are presented first. All are presented, when not identically worded, to give the reader a broader sense of the appropriate usage. Secondary sources are identified by one of the following four abbreviations:

• (PwN) - “Power with Nature”, Rex A. Ewing
• (IP) - Independent Power
• (PVP) - PV Power
• (SS) - Sharp Solar

A

Absorber - In a photovoltaic device, the material that readily absorbs photons to generate charge carriers (free electrons or holes).

Absorber - A material that readily absorbs photons to generate charge carriers (free electrons or holes). (PVP)

Absorbers - Dark-colored objects that soak up heat in solar collectors. (PVP)

Absorption Coefficient - The factor by which photons are absorbed as they travel a unit distance through a material. (PVP)

Absorption Stage - A stage of the battery charging process performed by the charge controller, where the batteries are held at the bulk-charging voltage for a specified period, usually an hour. (PwN)

AC - see alternating current.

Acceptor - A dopant material, such as boron, which has fewer outer shell electrons than required in an otherwise balanced crystal structure, providing a hole, which can accept a free electron.

Activated Shelf Life - The period of time, at a specified temperature, that a charged battery can be stored before its capacity falls to an unusable level.

Activation Voltage(s) - The voltage(s) at which a charge controller will take action to protect the batteries.

Active Material - The materials which chemically react within the cell to release free electrons. One active material is metal or metallic compound which is oxidized. The other active material, often a metallic oxide, is reduced. (IP)

Adjustable Set Point - A feature allowing the user to adjust the voltage levels at which a charge controller will become active.

AIC - See amperage interrupt capability.

Alternating Current (AC) - A type of electrical current, the direction of which is reversed at regular intervals or cycles. In the United States, the standard is 120 reversals or 60 cycles per second. Electricity transmission networks use AC because voltage can be controlled with relative ease.

Alternating Current (AC) - Electric current in which the direction of flow is reversed at frequent intervals. The most common type of household electricity.

Alternating Current (AC) - Electric current that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals, usually many times per second. Common household current is AC. (PwN)

Alternative Energy - Energy that is not popularly used but which is usually environmentally sound, such as solar or wind energy, hydrogen fuel, or biodiesel. See also Renewable Energy. (PwN)

Air Mass (sometimes called air mass ratio) - Equal to the cosine of the zenith angle-that angle from directly overhead to a line intersecting the sun. The air mass is an indication of the length of the path solar radiation travels through the atmosphere. An air mass of 1.0 means the sun is directly overhead and the radiation travels through one atmosphere (thickness).

Air Mass - The ratio of the mass of atmosphere in the actual observer-sun path to the mass that would exist if the observer was at sea level, at standard barometric pressure, and the sun was directly overhead. Note--(sometimes called air mass ratio). Air mass varies with the zenith angle of the sun and the local barometric pressure, which changes with altitude. For sun zenith angle, Z, of 62 degrees or less and local atmospheric pressure, P, where Po is standard atmospheric pressure, AM approximately equal sec Z(P/Po). [ASTM E 772] Alternatively, the path length of light through the atmosphere is described in terms of an equivalent relative air mass. AM0 corresponds to the solar spectrum in outer space; at the equator, the average spectrum is AM1, and the reference spectrum for STC was defined to be AM1.5 (average spectrum at 45-degrees latitude). (PVP)

Air Mass 1.5 (AM1.5) standard reference spectrum - The solar spectral irradiance distribution (diffuse and direct) incident at sea level on a sun-facing 37-degree tilted surface. The atmospheric conditions for AM1.5 are: precipitable water vapor, 14.2 mm; total ozone, 3.4 mm; turbidity (base e, lambda=0.5 mm), 0.27. [ASTM E 892, Table 2] (PVP)

Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the surrounding area.

Amorphous Semiconductor - A non-crystalline semiconductor material that has no long-range order.

Amorphous Silicon - A thin-film, silicon photovoltaic cell having no crystalline structure. Manufactured by depositing layers of doped silicon on a substrate. See also single-crystal silicon an polycrystalline silicon.

Amorphous Solar Cell - A type of solar cell constructed by using several thin layers of molten silicon. Amorphous solar cells cost less to produce and perform better in sub-optimal lighting conditions, but need more surface area than conventional crystalline cells to produce an equal amount of power. (PwN)

Amperage Interrupt Capability (AIC) - direct current fuses should be rated with a sufficient AIC to interrupt the highest possible current.

Ampere (amp) - A unit of electrical current or rate of flow of electrons. One volt across one ohm of resistance causes a current flow of one ampere.

Ampere (A) or amp - The unit for the electric current; the flow of electrons. One amp is 1 coulomb passing in one second. One amp is produced by an electric force of 1 volt acting across a resistance of 1 ohm. (PVP)

Ampere (Amp) - Unit of electrical current, thus the rate of electron flow. One volt across one ohm of resistance is equal to a current flow of one ampere. (PwN)

Ampere-Hour (Ah/AH) - A measure of the flow of current (in amperes) over one hour; used to measure battery capacity.

Ampere-Hour (Ah) - Quantity of electricity or measure of charge. (1 Ah = 3600 C [Coulomb]) (PVP)

Ampere Hour (AH) - A current of one ampere flowing for a period of one hour. Used primarily to rate battery capacity and solar or wind output. (PwN)

Ampere Hour Meter - An instrument that monitors current with time. The indication is the product of current (in amperes) and time (in hours).

Angle of Incidence - The angle that a ray of sun makes with a line perpendicular to the surface. For example, a surface that directly faces the sun has a solar angle of incidence of zero, but if the surface is parallel to the sun (for example, sunrise striking a horizontal rooftop), the angle of incidence is 90°.

Annual Solar Savings - The annual solar savings of a solar building is the energy savings attributable to a solar feature relative to the energy requirements of a non-solar building.

Anode - The positive electrode in an electrochemical cell (battery). Also, the earth or ground in a cathodic protection system. Also, the positive terminal of a diode.

Antireflection Coating - A thin coating of a material applied to a solar cell surface that reduces the light reflection and increases light transmission.

Array - see photovoltaic (PV) array.

Array - Any number of photovoltaic modules connected together to provide a single electrical output. Arrays are often designed to produce significant amounts of electricity. (PVP)

Array Current - The electrical current produced by a photovoltaic array when it is exposed to sunlight.

Array Operating Voltage - The voltage produced by a photovoltaic array when exposed to sunlight and connected to a load.

Autonomous System - See stand-alone system.

Availability - The quality or condition of a photovoltaic system being available to provide power to a load. Usually measured in hours per year. One minus availability equals downtime.

Avoided cost - The minimum amount an electric utility is required to pay an independent power producer, under the PURPA regulations of 1978, equal to the costs the utility calculates it avoids in not having to produce that power (usually substantially less than the retail price charged by the utility for power it sells to customers). (PVP)

Azimuth Angle - The angle between true south and the point on the horizon directly below the sun.

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B

Balance of System - Represents all components and costs other than the photovoltaic modules/array. It includes design costs, land, site preparation, system installation, support structures, power conditioning, operation and maintenance costs, indirect storage, and related costs.

Band Gap - In a semiconductor, the energy difference between the highest valence band and the lowest conduction band.

Band Gap Energy (Eg) - The amount of energy (in electron volts) required to free an outer shell electron from its orbit about the nucleus to a free state, and thus promote it from the valence to the conduction level.

Band-to-band Auger recombination - Recombination of an electron and a hole occurring between bands of the same energy in which no magnetic radiation is emitted. (PVP)

Barrier Energy - The energy given up by an electron in penetrating the cell barrier; a measure of the electrostatic potential of the barrier.

Base Load - The average amount of electric power that a utility must supply in any period.

Base Power - Power generated by a utility unit that operates at a very high capacity factor. (PVP)

Baseline Performance Value - Initial values of Isc, Voc, Pmp, Imp measured by the accredited laboratory and corrected to Standard Test Conditions, used to validate the manufacturer's performance measurements provided with the qualification modules per IEEE 1262. (PVP)

Battery - Two or more electrochemical cells enclosed in a container and electrically interconnected in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to provide the required operating voltage and current levels. Under common usage, the term battery also applies to a single cell if it constitutes the entire electrochemical storage system.

Battery - A group of interconnected electrochemical cells. Single cells are considered to be a battery if they are used alone. A battery cell contains an anode, a cathode, and the electrolyte. The nominal voltage of a lead-acid cell is 2 volts. (IP)

Battery - Electrochemical cells enclosed within a single container and electrically interconnected in a series/parallel arrangement designed to provide a specific DC operating voltage and current level. Batteries for PV systems are commonly 6- or 12-volts, and are used in 12-, 24-, or 48-volt operations. (PwN)

Battery Available Capacity - The total maximum charge, expressed in ampere-hours, that can be withdrawn from a cell or battery under a specific set of operating conditions including discharge rate, temperature, initial state of charge, age, and cut-off voltage.

Battery Capacity - The maximum total electrical charge, expressed in ampere-hours, which a battery can deliver to a load under a specific set of conditions.

Battery Cell - The simplest operating unit in a storage battery. It consists of one or more positive electrodes or plates, an electrolyte that permits ionic conduction, one or more negative electrodes or plates, separators between plates of opposite polarity, and a container for all the above.

Battery Cycle Life - The number of cycles, to a specified depth of discharge, that a cell or battery can undergo before failing to meet its specified capacity or efficiency performance criteria.

Battery Energy Capacity - The total energy available, expressed in watt-hours (kilowatt-hours), which can be withdrawn from a fully charged cell or battery. The energy capacity of a given cell varies with temperature, rate, age, and cut-off voltage. This term is more common to system designers than it is to the battery industry where capacity usually refers to ampere-hours.

Battery Energy Storage - Energy storage using electrochemical batteries. The three main applications for battery energy storage systems include spinning reserve at generating stations, load leveling at substations, and peak shaving on the customer side of the meter.

Battery Energy Storage - The three main applications for battery energy storage systems include spinning reserve at generating stations, load leveling at substations, and peak shaving on the customer side of the meter. Battery storage has also been suggested for holding down air emissions at the power plant by shifting the time of day of the emission or shifting the location of emissions. (PVP)

Battery Life - The period during which a cell or battery is capable of operating above a specified capacity or efficiency performance level. Life may be measured in cycles and/or years, depending on the type of service for which the cell or battery is intended.

Battery Life - Period during which a battery is capable of operating at or above its specified capacity or efficiency level. A battery’s useful life is generally considered to be over when a fully charged cell can only deliver 80 percent of its rated capacity. Beyond this point, the battery capacity diminishes rapidly. Life may be measured in cycles and/or years, depending on the type of service for which the battery was designed. (PwN)

BIPV (Building-Integrated Photovoltaics) - A term for the design and integration of photovoltaic (PV) technology into the building envelope, typically replacing conventional building materials. This integration may be in vertical facades, replacing view glass, spandrel glass, or other facade material; into semitransparent skylight systems; into roofing systems, replacing traditional roofing materials; into shading "eyebrows" over windows; or other building envelope systems.

Blocking Diode - A semiconductor connected in series with a solar cell or cells and a storage battery to keep the battery from discharging through the cell when there is no output, or low output, from the solar cell. It can be thought of as a one-way valve that allows electrons to flow forwards, but not backwards.

Boron (B) - The chemical element commonly used as the dopant in photovoltaic device or cell material.

Boule - A sausage-shaped, synthetic single-crystal mass grown in a special furnace, pulled and turned at a rate necessary to maintain the single-crystal structure during growth.

Btu (British Thermal Unit) - The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit; equal to 252 calories.

Bulk Stage - The initial stage of battery charging, where the charge controller allows maximum charging in order to reach the bulk voltage setting. (PwN)

Bypass Diode - A diode connected across one or more solar cells in a photovoltaic module such that the diode will conduct if the cell(s) become reverse biased. [UL 1703] It protects these solar cells from thermal destruction in case of total or partial shading of individual solar cells while other cells are exposed to full light.

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C

Cadmium (Cd) - A chemical element, atomic number 48, used in making certain types of solar cells and batteries.

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) - A polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic material.

Capacity (C) - See battery capacity.

Capacity Factor - The ratio of the average load on (or power output of) an electricity generating unit or system to the capacity rating of the unit or system over a specified period of time.

Capacity Factor - The amount of energy that the system produces at a particular site as a percentage of the total amount that it would produce if it operated at rated capacity during the entire year. For example, the capacity factor for a wind farm ranges from 20% to 35%. Thirty-five percent is close to the technology potential. (PVP)

Captive Electrolyte Battery - A battery having an immobilized electrolyte (gelled or absorbed in a material).

Cathode - The negative pole or electrode of an electrolytic cell, vacuum tube, etc., where electrons enter (current leaves) the system; the opposite of an anode.

Cathodic Protection - A method of preventing oxidation of the exposed metal in structures by imposing a small electrical voltage between the structure and the ground.

Cathodic protection - A method of preventing oxidation (rusting) of exposed metal structures, such as bridges and pipelines, by imposing between the structure and the ground a small electrical voltage that opposes the flow of electrons and that is greater than the voltage present during oxidation. (PVP)

Cd - see cadmium.

CdTe - see cadmium telluride.

Cell (battery) - A single unit of an electrochemical device capable of producing direct voltage by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. A battery usually consists of several cells electrically connected together to produce higher voltages. (Sometimes the terms cell and battery are used interchangeably). Also see photovoltaic (PV) cell.

Cell Barrier - A very thin region of static electric charge along the interface of the positive and negative layers in a photovoltaic cell. The barrier inhibits the movement of electrons from one layer to the other, so that higher-energy electrons from one side diffuse preferentially through it in one direction, creating a current and thus a voltage across the cell. Also called depletion zone or space charge.

Cell Efficiency - Percentage of electrical energy that a solar cell produces (under optimal conditions) divided by the total amount of solar energy falling on the cell. Typical efficiency for commercial cells is in the range of 12 to 15 percent. (PwN)

Cell Junction - The area of immediate contact between two layers (positive and negative) of a photovoltaic cell. The junction lies at the center of the cell barrier or depletion zone.

Cell efficiency The percentage of electrical energy that a solar cell produces (under optimal conditions) as compared to the total amount of energy from the sun falling on the cell. (SS)

Central Power - The generation of electricity in large power plants with distribution through a network of transmission lines (grid) for sale to a number of users. Opposite of distributed power. (PVP)

Charge - The process of adding electrical energy to a battery.

Charge Carrier - A free and mobile conduction electron or hole in a semiconductor.

Charge Controller - A component of a photovoltaic system that controls the flow of current to and from the battery to protect it from over-charge and over-discharge. The charge controller may also indicate the system operational status.

Charge Controller - Component located in the circuit between the solar array or wind turbine and the battery bank. Its job is to bring the batteries to an optimal state of charge, without overcharging them. Most charge controllers have digital displays to help monitor system status and performance. MPPT charge controllers go a step further, by converting excess array voltage into usable amperage. (PwN)

Charge Factor - A number representing the time in hours during which a battery can be charged at a constant current without damage to the battery. Usually expressed in relation to the total battery capacity, i.e., C/5 indicates a charge factor of 5 hours. Related to charge rate.

Charge Rate - The current applied to a cell or battery to restore its available capacity. This rate is commonly normalized by a charge control device with respect to the rated capacity of the cell or battery.

Charge Rate - The amount of energy per unit of time which is being added to the battery. Commonly expressed as a ratio of the battery's rated capacity to charge in relation to the time of charge duration. If you have a battery with a storage capacity of 1,000 amp-hrs and your PV array israted at 50 amps then your charge rate is expressed as C/20 (1,000 / 50 ). (IP)

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) - A method of depositing thin semiconductor films used to make certain types of photovoltaic devices. With this method, a substrate is exposed to one or more vaporized compounds, one or more of which contain desirable constituents. A chemical reaction is initiated, at or near the substrate surface, to produce the desired material that will condense on the substrate.

Circuit - A system of conductors that convey electricity. (SS)

Circuit - a system of conductors connected together for the purpose of carrying an electric current from a generating source, through the devices that use the electricity (the loads), and back to the source. (PwN)

Circuit Breaker - A safety device that shuts off power (i.e., it creates an open circuit) when it senses too much current. Generally required by the NEC and/or building codes. (PwN)

Cleavage of Lateral Epitaxial Films for Transfer (CLEFT) - A process for making inexpensive Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) photovoltaic cells in which a thin film of GaAs is grown atop a thick, single-crystal GaAs (or other suitable material) substrate and then is cleaved from the substrate and incorporated into a cell, allowing the substrate to be reused to grow more thin-film GaAs.

Cloud Enhancement - The increase in solar intensity caused by reflected irradiance from nearby clouds.

Cogeneration - The process in which fuel is used to produce heat for a boiler-steam turbine or gas for a turbine. The turbine drives a generator that produces electricity, with the excess heat used for process steam. (PVP)

Combined Collector - A photovoltaic device or module that provides useful heat energy in addition to electricity.

Concentrator - A photovoltaic module, which includes optical components such as lenses (Fresnel lens) to direct and concentrate sunlight onto a solar cell of smaller area. Most concentrator arrays must directly face or track the sun. They can increase the power flux of sunlight hundreds of times.

Conduction Band (or conduction level) - An energy band in a semiconductor in which electrons can move freely in a solid, producing a net transport of charge.

Conductor - The material through which electricity is transmitted, such as an electrical wire, or transmission or distribution line.

Conductor - A material, usually a metal such as copper, that facilitates the flow of electrons. (PwN)

Contact Resistance - The resistance between metallic contacts and the semiconductor.

Conversion Efficiency - See photovoltaic (conversion) efficiency.

Converter - A unit that converts a direct current (dc) voltage to another dc voltage.

Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2, or CIS) - A polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic material (sometimes incorporating gallium (CIGS) and/or sulfur).

Crystalline Silicon - A type of photovoltaic cell made from a slice of single-crystal silicon or polycrystalline silicon.

Current - See electric current.

Current - The flow of electricity between two points, measured in amperes (amps). (PwN)

Current at Maximum Power (Imp) - The current at which maximum power is available from a module.

Cutoff Voltage - The voltage levels (activation) at which the charge controller disconnects the photovoltaic array from the battery or the load from the battery.

Cycle - The discharge and subsequent charge of a battery.

Cycle - One complete charge / discharge sequence of the battery. Deep cycle batteries are rated to last for so many cycles. Such as a Trojan T-105 golf-cart battery will last for 700 deep cycles, and a Surrette CH-375 will last for 1,175 deep cycles. (IP)

Cycle life - Number of discharge-charge cycles that a battery can tolerate under specified conditions before it fails to meet specified criteria as to performance (e.g., capacity decreases to 80-percent of the nominal capacity). (PVP)

Czochralski Process - A method of growing large size, high quality semiconductor crystal by slowly lifting a seed crystal from a molten bath of the material under careful cooling conditions.

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D

Dangling Bonds - A chemical bond associated with an atom on the surface layer of a crystal. The bond does not join with another atom of the crystal, but extends in the direction of exterior of the surface.

Days of Storage - The number of consecutive days the stand-alone system will meet a defined load without solar energy input. This term is related to system availability.

DC - See direct current.

DC-to-DC Converter - Electronic circuit to convert direct current voltages (e.g., photovoltaic module voltage) into other levels (e.g., load voltage). Can be part of a maximum power point tracker.

Deep-Cycle Battery - A battery with large plates that can withstand many discharges to a low state-of-charge.

Deep-Cycle Battery - A battery specifically made to have up to 80% of its energy capacity removed and replaced repeatedly for many cycles. The plates of this type of battery are much thicker than are starting battery's plates. (IP)

Deep Discharge - Discharging a battery to 20% or less of its full charge capacity.

Depth of Discharge (DOD) - The ampere-hours removed from a fully charged cell or battery, expressed as a percentage of rated capacity. For example, the removal of 25 ampere-hours from a fully charged 100 ampere-hours rated cell results in a 25% depth of discharge. Under certain conditions, such as discharge rates lower than that used to rate the cell, depth of discharge can exceed 100%.

Depth of Discharge (DOD) - The ampere-hours removed from a fully-charged battery, expressed as a percentage of rated capacity. For example, the removal of 25 ampere-hours from a fully-charged 100 ampere-hour rated battery results in a 25 percent depth of discharge. For optimum health and longevity, the DOD should never exceed 50 percent. (PwN)

Dendrite - A slender threadlike spike of pure crystalline material, such as silicon.

Dendritic Web Technique - A method for making sheets of polycrystalline silicon in which silicon dendrites are slowly withdrawn from a melt of silicon whereupon a web of silicon forms between the dendrites and solidifies as it rises from the melt and cools.

Depletion Zone - Same as cell barrier. The term derives from the fact that this microscopically thin region is depleted of charge carriers (free electrons and hole).

Design Month - The month having the combination of insolation and load that requires the maximum energy from the photovoltaic array.

Diffuse Insolation - Sunlight received indirectly as a result of scattering due to clouds, fog, haze, dust, or other obstructions in the atmosphere. Opposite of direct insolation.

Diffuse Radiation - Radiation received from the sun after reflection and scattering by the atmosphere and ground.

Diffusion Furnace - Furnace used to make junctions in semiconductors by diffusing dopant atoms into the surface of the material.

Diffusion Length - The mean distance a free electron or hole moves before recombining with another hole or electron.

Diode - An electronic device that allows current to flow in one direction only. See blocking diode and bypass diode.

Direct Beam Radiation - Radiation received by direct solar rays. Measured by a pyrheliometer with a solar aperture of 5.7° to transcribe the solar disc.

Direct Current (DC) - A type of electricity transmission and distribution by which electricity flows in one direction through the conductor, usually relatively low voltage and high current. To be used for typical 120 volt or 220 volt household appliances, DC must be converted to alternating current, its opposite.

Direct Current (DC) - Electrical current that flows only in one direction. It is the type of current produced by solar cells, and the only current that can be stored in a battery. (PwN)

Direct Insolation - Sunlight falling directly upon a collector. Opposite of diffuse insolation.

Discharge - The withdrawal of electrical energy from a battery.

Discharge Factor - A number equivalent to the time in hours during which a battery is discharged at constant current usually expressed as a percentage of the total battery capacity, i.e., C/5 indicates a discharge factor of 5 hours. Related to discharge rate.

Discharge Rate - The rate, usually expressed in amperes or time, at which electrical current is taken from the battery.

Disconnect - Switch gear used to connect or disconnect components in a photovoltaic system.

Distributed Energy Resources (DER) - A variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be combined with energy management and storage systems and used to improve the operation of the electricity delivery system, whether or not those technologies are connected to an electricity grid.

Distributed Generation - A popular term for localized or on-site power generation.

Distributed Power - Generic term for any power supply located near the point where the power is used. Opposite of central power. See stand-alone systems.

Distributed Systems - Systems that are installed at or near the location where the electricity is used, as opposed to central systems that supply electricity to grids. A residential photovoltaic system is a distributed system.

Donor - In a photovoltaic device, an n-type dopant, such as phosphorus, that puts an additional electron into an energy level very near the conduction band; this electron is easily exited into the conduction band where it increases the electrical conductivity over than of an undoped semiconductor.

Donor Level - The level that donates conduction electrons to the system.

Dopant - A chemical element (impurity) added in small amounts to an otherwise pure semiconductor material to modify the electrical properties of the material. An n-dopant introduces more electrons. A p-dopant creates electron vacancies (holes).

Doping - The addition of dopants to a semiconductor.

Downtime - Time when the photovoltaic system cannot provide power for the load. Usually expressed in hours per year or that percentage.

Dry Cell - A cell (battery) with a captive electrolyte. A primary battery that cannot be recharged.

Duty Cycle - The ratio of active time to total time. Used to describe the operating regime of appliances or loads in photovoltaic systems.

Duty Rating - The amount of time an inverter (power conditioning unit) can produce at full rated power.

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E

Edge-Defined Film-Fed Growth (EFG) - A method for making sheets of polycrystalline silicon for photovoltaic devices in which molten silicon is drawn upward by capillary action through a mold.

Efficiency The ratio of output energy to input energy. (SS)

Electric Circuit - The path followed by electrons from a power source (generator or battery), through an electrical system, and returning to the source.

Electric Current - The flow of electrical energy (electricity) in a conductor, measured in amperes.

Electrical Grid - A large distribution network, including towers, poles, and transmission lines, that delivers electricity over a wide geographical area. (PwN)

Electricity - Energy resulting from the flow of charge particles, such as electrons or ions.

Electricity - In a practical sense, the controlled flow of electrons through a conductor. In a scientific sense, the non-gravitational and non-nuclear repulsive and attractive forces governing much of the behavior of charged subatomic particles. (PwN)

Electrochemical Cell - A device containing two conducting electrodes, one positive and the other negative, made of dissimilar materials (usually metals) that are immersed in a chemical solution (electrolyte) that transmits positive ions from the negative to the positive electrode and thus forms an electrical charge. One or more cells constitute a battery.

Electrode - A conductor that is brought in conducting contact with a ground.

Electrode - A conductor used to lead current into or out of a nonmetallic part of a circuit. (SS)

Electrode - A conductor used to lead current into or out of a non-metallic part of a circuit, such as a battery’s positive and negative electrodes. (PwN)

Electrodeposition - Electrolytic process in which a metal is deposited at the cathode from a solution of its ions.

Electrolyte - A nonmetallic (liquid or solid) conductor that carries current by the movement of ions (instead of electrons) with the liberation of matter at the electrodes of an electrochemical cell.

Electrolyte - The medium of ion ( electrically charged particle or molecule) transport within the cell. The electrolyte provides a path for electron transfer between the anode and the cathode. (IP)

Electrolyte - Fluid used in batteries used as the transport medium for positively and negatively charged ions. In lead-acid batteries, this is somewhat diluted sulfuric acid. (PwN)

Electron - An elementary particle of an atom with a negative electrical charge and a mass of 1/1837 of a proton; electrons surround the positively charged nucleus of an atom and determine the chemical properties of an atom. The movement of electrons in an electrical conductor constitutes an electric current.

Electron - Negatively-charged particle. An electrical current is a stream of electrons moving through an electrical conductor. (PwN)

Electron Volt (eV) - The amount of kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated through an electric potential difference of 1 Volt; equivalent to 1.603 x 10^-19; a unit of energy or work.

Energy - The capability of doing work; different forms of energy can be converted to other forms, but the total amount of energy remains the same.

Energy - The capacity for performing work. A ball resting on top of a hill is said to have potential energy, while the same ball rolling down the hill is imbued with kinetic energy. Solar cells convert electromagnetic energy (light) from the sun into electrical energy, while wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind (moving air) into mechanical energy, and subsequently into electrical energy. (PwN)

Energy Audit - A survey that shows how much energy used in a home, which helps find ways to use less energy.

Energy Audit - An inspection process that determines how much energy you use in your home, usually accompanied by specific suggestions for saving energy. (PwN)

Energy Contribution Potential - Recombination occurring in the emitter region of a photovoltaic cell.

Energy Density - The ratio of available energy per pound; usually used to compare storage batteries.

Energy density - The ratio of energy available from a battery to its volume (Wh/1) or mass (Wh/kg). (PVP)

Energy Levels - The energy represented by an electron in the band model of a substance.

Epitaxial Growth - The growth of one crystal on the surface of another crystal. The growth of the deposited crystal is oriented by the lattice structure of the original crystal.

Equalize Charge - The controlled overcharge of a seemingly fully charged battery (many cells within the battery already are fully charged) to bring the weaker cell(s) up to full charge. Should be accomplished every 30 days, or as needed. You can determine unequal cells with a hydrometer (should be within 15 points lowest to highest reading), or if you have the large individual cells with outside terminals you can check voltage readings across each cell and compare them (should be within .05 volts lowest to highest readings. (IP)

Equalization - The process of restoring all cells in a battery to an equal state-of-charge. Some battery types may require a complete discharge as a part of the equalization process.

Equalization - A controlled process of overcharging non-sealed lead-acid batteries, intended to clean lead sulfates from the battery’s plates, and restore all cells to an equal state of charge. (PwN)

Equalization Charge - The process of mixing the electrolyte in batteries by periodically overcharging the batteries for a short time.

Equalizing Charge - A continuation of normal battery charging, at a voltage level slightly higher than the normal end-of-charge voltage, in order to provide cell equalization within a battery.

Equinox - The two times of the year when the sun crosses the equator and night and day are of equal length; usually occurs on March 21st (spring equinox) and September 23 (fall equinox).

Extrinsic Semiconductor - The product of doping a pure semiconductor.

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F

Fermi Level - Energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is one-half. In a metal, the Fermi level is very near the top of the filled levels in the partially filled valence band. In a semiconductor, the Fermi level is in the band gap.

Fill Factor - The ratio of a photovoltaic cell's actual power to its power if both current and voltage were at their maxima. A key characteristic in evaluating cell performance.

Fixed Tilt Array - A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with respect to horizontal.

Flat-Plate Array - A photovoltaic (PV) array that consists of non-concentrating PV modules.

Flat-Plate Module - An arrangement of photovoltaic cells or material mounted on a rigid flat surface with the cells exposed freely to incoming sunlight.

Flat-Plate Photovoltaics (PV) - A PV array or module that consists of nonconcentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct and diffuse sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of the direct sunlight is lost because of oblique sun-angles in relation to the array.

Float Charge - The voltage required to counteract the self-discharge of the battery at a certain temperature.

Float Life - The number of years that a battery can keep its stated capacity when it is kept at float charge.

Float Service - A battery operation in which the battery is normally connected to an external current source; for instance, a battery charger which supplies the battery load< under normal conditions, while also providing enough energy input to the battery to make up for its internal quiescent losses, thus keeping the battery always up to full power and ready for service.

Float Stage - A battery-charging operation performed by the charge controller in which enough energy is supplied to meet all loads, plus internal component losses, thus always keeping the battery up to full power and ready for service. Float voltage is somewhat lower than bulk voltage. (PwN)

Float-Zone Process - A method of growing a large-size, high-quality crystal whereby coils heat a polycrystalline ingot placed atop a single-crystal seed. As the coils are slowly raised the molten interface beneath the coils becomes single crystal.

Float-Zone Process - In reference to solar photovoltaic cell manufacture, a method of growing a large-size, high-quality crystal whereby coils heat a polycrystalline ingot placed atop a single-crystal seed. As the coils are slowly raised the molten interface beneath the coils becomes a single crystal.

Fossil fuels - Fuels that are formed underground from the remains of dead plants and animals. i.e. oil, natural gas, and coal are fossil fuels. (SS)

Fossil Fuels - Carbon- and hydrogen-laden fuels formed underground from the remains of long-dead plants and animals. Crude oil, natural gas and coal are fossil fuels. (PwN)

Frequency - The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform, expressed in Hertz (Hz).

Frequency Regulation - This indicates the variability in the output frequency. Some loads will switch off or not operate properly if frequency variations exceed 1%.

Fresnel Lens - An optical device that focuses light like a magnifying glass; concentric rings are faced at slightly different angles so that light falling on any ring is focused to the same point.

Full Sun - The amount of power density in sunlight received at the earth's surface at noon on a clear day (about 1,000 Watts/square meter).

Full Sun - Scientific definition of solar power density received at the surface of the earth at noon on a clear day. Defined as 1,000 watts per square meter (W/m2). Reality varies from 600 W/m2 to 1,200 W/m2, depending on latitude, altitude, and atmospheric purity. (PwN)

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G

Ga - See gallium.

GaAs - See gallium arsenide.

Gallium (Ga) - A chemical element, metallic in nature, used in making certain kinds of solar cells and semiconductor devices.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - A crystalline, high-efficiency compound used to make certain types of solar cells and semiconductor material.

Gassing - The evolution of gas from one or more of the electrodes in the cells of a battery. Gassing commonly results from local action self-discharge or from the electrolysis of water in the electrolyte during charging.

Gassing Current - The portion of charge current that goes into electrolytical production of hydrogen and oxygen from the electrolytic liquid. This current increases with increasing voltage and temperature.

Gel-Type Battery - Lead-acid battery in which the electrolyte is composed of a silica gel matrix.

Gigawatt (GW) - A unit of power equal to 1 billion Watts; 1 million kilowatts, or 1,000 megawatts.

Glazings - Clear materials (such as glass or plastic) that allow sunlight to pass into solar collectors and solar buildings, trapping heat inside. (PVP)

Grain boundaries - The boundaries where crystallites in a multicrystalline material meet. (PVP)

Greenhouse effect - When heat from the sun becomes trapped in the Earth's atmosphere due to certain gases. (SS)

Greenhouse Effect - A warming effect that occurs when heat from the sun is trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere due to the heat-absorbing properties of certain (greenhouse) gases. (PwN)

Greenhouse Gases - The gases responsible for trapping heat from the sun within the Earth's atmosphere. i.e. water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. (SS)

Greenhouse Gases - Gases responsible for trapping heat from the sun within the Earth’s atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most prevalent, but methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides are also important greenhouse gases. (PwN)

Grid - See electrical grid.

Grid A distribution network, including towers, poles, and wires that a utility uses to deliver electricity. (SS)

Grid-Connected System - A solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) system in which the PV array acts like a central generating plant, supplying power to the grid.

Grid-connected PV system - A solar system that is tied in to the utility's network. When generating more power than necessary, the system supplies the surplus to the grid. At night, the system draws power from the grid. (SS)

Grid-Interactive System - Same as grid-connected system.

Grid Lines - Metallic contacts fused to the surface of the solar cell to provide a low resistance path for electrons to flow out to the cell interconnect wires.

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H

Harmonic Content - The number of frequencies in the output waveform in addition to the primary frequency (50 or 60 Hz.). Energy in these harmonic frequencies is lost and may cause excessive heating of the load.

Hertz (HZ) - The frequency of electrical current described in cycles per second, i.e. Appliances in the United States use 60 HZ. (SS)

Hertz (Hz) - A unit denoting the frequency of an electromagnetic wave, equal to one cycle per increment of time. In alternating current, the frequency at which the current completes one full switch in direction and then back to its original direction. In the U.S., this is usually 60 cycles per second (60 Hz). (PwN)

Heterojunction - A region of electrical contact between two different materials.

High Voltage Disconnect - The voltage at which a charge controller will disconnect the photovoltaic array from the batteries to prevent overcharging.

High Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis - The voltage difference between the high voltag disconnect set point and the voltage at which the full photovoltaic array current will be reapplied.

Hole - The vacancy where an electron would normally exist in a solid; behaves like a positively charged particle.

Homojunction - The region between an n-layer and a p-layer in a single material, photovoltaic cell.

Hybrid System - A solar electric or photovoltaic system that includes other sources of electricity generation, such as wind or diesel generators.

Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon - Amorphous silicon with a small amount of incorporated hydrogen. The hydrogen neutralizes dangling bonds in the amorphous silicon, allowing charge carriers to flow more freely.

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I

Incident Light - Light that shines onto the face of a solar cell or module.

Indium Oxide - A wide band gap semiconductor that can be heavily doped with tin to make a highly conductive, transparent thin film. Often used as a front contact or one component of a heterojunction solar cell.

Infrared Radiation - Electromagnetic radiation whose wavelengths lie in the range from 0.75 micrometer to 1000 micrometers; invisible long wavelength radiation (heat) capable of producing a thermal or photovoltaic effect, though less effective than visible light.

Input Voltage - This is determined by the total power required by the alternating current loads and the voltage of any direct current loads. Generally, the larger the load, the higher the inverter input voltage. This keeps the current at levels where switches and other components are readily available.

Insolation - The solar power density incident on a surface of stated area and orientation, usually expressed as Watts per square meter or Btu per square foot per hour. See diffuse insolation and direct insolation.

Insolation - The measure of the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. According to NREL, “this term has been generally replaced by solar irradiance because of the confusion of the word with insulation”. See Irradiance. (PwN)

Interconnect - A conductor within a module or other means of connection that provides an electrical interconnection between the solar cells.

Intrinsic Layer - A layer of semiconductor material, used in a photovoltaic device, whose properties are essentially those of the pure, undoped, material.

Intrinsic Semiconductor - An undoped semiconductor.

Inverter - A device that converts direct current electricity to alternating current either for stand-alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.

Inverter - An inverter converts the electricity generated from a solar system from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) for use in the home. (SS)

Inverter - The component that transforms the direct current (DC) flowing from the battery to alternating current (AC) for use in the home. Also called a power inverter. (PwN)

Ion - An electrically charged atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained electrons; a loss makes the resulting particle positively charged; a gain makes the particle negatively charged.

Irradiance - The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied by time equals insolation.

Irradiance - the amount of solar energy that strikes a surface during a specific time period. Measured in kilowatts. (SS)

Irradiance - The rate at which radiant energy arrives at a specific area of the Earth’s surface during a specific time interval. Measured in W/m2. (PwN)

ISPRA Guidelines - Guidelines for the assessment of photovoltaic power plants, published by the Joint Research Centre of the Commission of the European Communities, Ispra, Italy.

I-Type Semiconductor - Semiconductor material that is left intrinsic, or undoped so that the concentration of charge carriers is characteristic of the material itself rather than of added impurities.

I-V Curve - A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage from a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the short circuit (no load) condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The shape of the curve characterizes cell performance.

I-V curve - A graph that plots the current versus the voltage from the solar cell as the electrical load (or resistance) is increased from short circuit (no load) to open circuit (maximum voltage). The shape of the curve characterizing cell performance. Three important points on the IV curve are the open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and peak or maximum power (operating) point. (SS)

I-V data - The relationship between current and voltage of a photovoltaic device in the power-producing quadrant, as a set of ordered pairs of current and voltage readings in a table, or as a curve plotted in a suitable coordinate system (i.e., Cartesian). [ASTM E 1036] (PVP)

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J

Joule - A metric unit of energy or work; 1 joule per second equals 1 watt or 0.737 foot-pounds; 1 Btu equals 1,055 joules.

Junction - A region of transition between semiconductor layers, such as a p/n junction, which goes from a region that has a high concentration of acceptors (p-type) to one that has a high concentration of donors (n-type).

Junction Box - A photovoltaic (PV) generator junction box is an enclosure on the module where PV strings are electrically connected and where protection devices can be located, if necessary. (Also known as a combiner box.)

Junction box - The point on a solar module where it connects, or is strung, to other solar modules. (SS)

Junction box (J-box) - Enclosure on the back of a solar module where it is connected (wired) to other solar modules. (PwN)

Junction Diode - A semiconductor device with a junction and a built-in potential that passes current better in one direction than the other. All solar cells are junction diodes.

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K

Kilowatt (kW) - A standard unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts, or to the energy consumption at a rate of 1000 joules per second.

Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) - 1,000 thousand watts acting over a period of 1 hour. The kWh is a unit of energy. 1 kWh=3600 kJ.

Kilowatt Hours (kWh) - One thousand watts being used over a period of one hour. The kWh is the usual billing unit for energy companies. (PwN)

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L

Langley (L) - Unit of solar irradiance. One gram calorie per square centimeter. 1 L = 85.93 kwh/m2.

Lattice - The regular periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystal of semiconductor material.

Lead-Acid Battery - A general category that includes batteries with plates made of pure lead, lead-antimony, or lead-calcium immersed in an acid electrolyte.

Life - The period during which a system is capable of operating above a specified performance level.

Life-Cycle Cost - The estimated cost of owning and operating a photovoltaic system for the period of its useful life.

Light-Induced Defects - Defects, such as dangling bonds, induced in an amorphous silicon semiconductor upon initial exposure to light.

Light Trapping - The trapping of light inside a semiconductor material by refracting and reflecting the light at critical angles; trapped light will travel further in the material, greatly increasing the probability of absorption and hence of producing charge carriers.

Line-Commutated Inverter - An inverter that is tied to a power grid or line. The commutation of power (conversion from direct current to alternating current) is controlled by the power line, so that, if there is a failure in the power grid, the photovoltaic system cannot feed power into the line.

Liquid Electrolyte Battery - A battery containing a liquid solution of acid and water. Distilled water may be added to these batteries to replenish the electrolyte as necessary. Also called a flooded battery because the plates are covered with the electrolyte.

Load - The demand on an energy producing system; the energy consumption or requirement of a piece or group of equipment. Usually expressed in terms of amperes or watts in reference to electricity.

Load Circuit - The wire, switches, fuses, etc. that connect the load to the power source.

Load Current (A) - The current required by the electrical device.

Load Resistance - The resistance presented by the load. See resistance.

Low Voltage Cutoff (LVC) - The voltage level at which a charge controller will disconnect the load from the battery.

Low Voltage Disconnect - The voltage at which a charge controller will disconnect the load from the batteries to prevent over-discharging.

Low Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis - The voltage difference between the low voltage disconnect set point and the voltage at which the load will be reconnected.

Low Voltage Warning - A warning buzzer or light that indicates the low battery voltage set point has been reached.

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M

Maintenance-Free Battery - A sealed battery to which water cannot be added to maintain electrolyte level.

Majority Carrier - Current carriers (either free electrons or holes) that are in excess in a specific layer of a semiconductor material (electrons in the n-layer, holes in the p-layer) of a cell.

Marginal cost - The cost of one additional unit within a group of like units. (PVP)

Maximum Power Point (MPP) - The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of a module under illumination, where the product of current and voltage is maximum. [UL 1703] For a typical silicon cell, this is at about 0.45 volts.

Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) - Means of a power conditioning unit that automatically operates the photovoltaic generator at its maximum power point under all conditions.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) - Technology used by direct grid-tied inverters and some charge controllers to convert, through the use of DC-DC power converters, excess array voltage into usable amperage, by tracking the optimal power point of the I-V curve. (PwN)

Maximum Power Tracking - Operating a photovoltaic array at the peak power point of the array's I-V curve where maximum power is obtained. Also called peak power tracking.

Megawatt (MW) - 1,000 kilowatts, or 1 million watts; standard measure of electric power plant generating capacity.

Megawatt (MW) - One million watts; 1,000 kilowatts. Commercial power plants and wind farms are usually rated in megawatts. (PwN)

Megawatt-Hour - 1,000 kilowatt-hours or 1 million watt-hours.

Microgroove - A small groove scribed into the surface of a solar cell, which is filled with metal for contacts.

Micrometer - One millionth of a meter (10-6 m). (PVP)

Minority Carrier - A current carrier, either an electron or a hole, that is in the minority in a specific layer of a semiconductor material; the diffusion of minority carriers under the action of the cell junction voltage is the current in a photovoltaic device.

Minority Carrier Lifetime - The average time a minority carrier exists before recombination.

Modified Sine Wave - A waveform that has at least three states (i.e., positive, off, and negative). Has less harmonic content than a square wave.

Modularity - The use of multiple inverters connected in parallel to service different loads.

Module - See photovoltaic (PV) module.

Module Derate Factor - A factor that lowers the photovoltaic module current to account for field operating conditions such as dirt accumulation on the module.

Monocrystalline solar cell - A type of solar cell made from a thin slice of a single large crystal silicon. (SS)

Monocrystalline Solar Cell - Type of solar cell made from a thin slice of a single large silicon crystal. Also known as single-crystal solar cell. (PwN)

Monolithic - Fabricated as a single structure.

Movistor - Metal Oxide Varistor. Used to protect electronic circuits from surge currents such as those produced by lightning.

Multicrystalline - A semiconductor (photovoltaic) material composed of variously oriented, small, individual crystals. Sometimes referred to as polycrystalline or semicrystalline.

Multicrystalline - Material that is solidified at such as rate that many small crystals (crystallites) form. The atoms within a single crystallite are symmetrically arranged, whereas crystallites are jumbled together. These numerous grain boundaries reduce the device efficiency. A material composed of variously oriented, small individual crystals. (Sometimes referred to as polycrystalline or semicrystalline). (PVP)

Multicrystalline Solar Cell - See Polycrystalline Solar Cell. (PwN)

Multijunction Device - A high-efficiency photovoltaic device containing two or more cell junctions, each of which is optimized for a particular part of the solar spectrum.

Multi-Stage Controller - A charging controller unit that allows different charging currents as the battery nears full state of charge.

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N

National Electrical Code (NEC) - Contains guidelines for all types of electrical installations. The 1984 and later editions of the NEC contain Article 690, "Solar Photovoltaic Systems" which should be followed when installing a PV system.

National Electrical Code (NEC) - The U. S. minimum inspection requirements for all types of electrical installations, including solar and wind systems, published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). (PwN)

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) - This organization sets standards for some non-electronic products like junction boxes.

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) - The U. S. trade organization which sets standards for the electrical manufacturing industry. (PwN)

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) - Based in Golden, Colorado, NREL is the principal research laboratory for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Operated by Midwest Research Institute and Battelle, NREL concentrates on studying, testing and developing renewable energy technologies. (PwN)

NEC - See National Electrical Code.

NEMA - See National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Net metering - A practice used in conjunction with a solar electric system where your electric meter tracks your net power usage, spinning forward when you use electricity from the utility, and spinning backward when your system is generating more electricity than you need. (SS)

Net Metering - A practice used in conjunction with a solar- or wind-electric system. The electric utility’s meter tracks the home’s net power usage, spinning forward when electricity is drawn from the utility, and spinning backward when the solar or wind system is generating more electricity than is currently needed to run the home’s loads. (PwN)

Nickel Cadmium Battery - A battery containing nickel and cadmium plates and an alkaline electrolyte.

Nominal Voltage - A reference voltage used to describe batteries, modules, or systems (i.e., a 12-volt or 24-volt battery, module, or system).

Nonrenewable fuels - Fuels that cannot be easily made or "renewed." We can use up nonrenewable fuels. Oil, natural gas, and coal are nonrenewable fuels. (PVP)

Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) - The estimated temperature of a photovoltaic module when operating under 800 w/m2 irradiance, 20 C ambient temperature and wind speed of 1 meter per second. NOCT is used to estimate the nominal operating temperature of a module in its working environment.

N-Type - Negative semiconductor material in which there are more electrons than holes; current is carried through it by the flow of electrons.

N-Type Semiconductor - A semiconductor produced by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with an electron-donor impurity (e.g., phosphorus in silicon).

N-Type Silicon - Silicon material that has been doped with a material that has more electrons in its atomic structure than does silicon.

NREL The National Renewable Energy Laboratory. A national lab that concentrates on studying and developing renewable energy sources. (SS)

Nuclear energy - Energy that comes from splitting atoms of radioactive materials, such as uranium. (PVP)

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O

Ohm - A measure of the electrical resistance of a material equal to the resistance of a circuit in which the potential difference of 1 volt produces a current of 1 ampere.

Ohm - Measure of the resistance to current flow in electrical circuits, equal to the amount of resistance overcome by one volt in causing one ampere to flow. (PwN)

Ohm's Law - Named after the German physicist Georg Ohm who in 1827 described resistance to electrical flow. Expresses the fundamental relationship between voltage, current, and resistance. Current (Amps, or I ) in a circuit equals Voltage ( E ) divided by Resistance ( Ohms, or R), I = E / R or Amps = Volts / Ohms. By using simple algebra Ohm's law can be rearranged as: E = I x R or Volts = Amps x Resistance And also be rearranged a third way: R = E / I or Resistance = Volts / Amps- So to recap: The current flow in a circuit depends on both the voltage of the source ( battery, or PV ) and the resistance of the circuit. (IP)

One-Axis Tracking - A system capable of rotating about one axis.

Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) - The maximum possible voltage across a photovoltaic cell; the voltage across the cell in sunlight when no current is flowing.

Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) - The voltage of a PV cell, or module, when measured without a load being connected. It depends on the amount of sunlight hitting the PV but this voltage reading is always higher than the peak voltage (voltage at the maximum power point, or knee, of a I-V curve).

Operating Point - The current and voltage that a photovoltaic module or array produces when connected to a load. The operating point is dependent on the load or the batteries connected to the output terminals of the array.

Orientation - Placement with respect to the cardinal directions, N, S, E, W; azimuth is the measure of orientation from north.

Orientation - A term used to describe the direction that a solar module faces. The two components of orientation are the tilt angle (the angle the panel makes from the horizontal)(aka elevation) and the aspect angle (the angle the panel makes from North)(aka azumith). (SS)

Orientation - Term used to describe the direction that a solar module or array faces. The two components of orientation are tilt angle (the number of degrees the panel is raised from the horizontal position, also known as elevation) and the aspect angle (the degree by which the module or array deviates from facing due south, also known as azimuth). (PwN)

Outgas - See gassing.

Overcharge - Forcing current into a fully charged battery. The battery will be damaged if overcharged for a long period.

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P

Packing Factor - The ratio of array area to actual land area or building envelope area for a system; or, the ratio of total solar cell area to the total module area, for a module.

Panel - See photovoltaic (PV) panel.

Parallel - A connection between cells or batteries (also PV's) to increase the current capacity. The voltage stays the same when we wire positive to positive and negative to negative, but the capacity in battery amp-hrs is the sum of the batteries wired in parallel. With PV arrays parallel wired you add up the amps available from each paralleled unit, or set of series wired modules, to get your total current output. (IP)

Parallel Connection - A way of joining solar cells or photovoltaic modules by connecting positive leads together and negative leads together; such a configuration increases the current, but not the voltage.

Parallel Connection - Wiring configuration whereby the current is given more than one path to follow, thus amperage is increased while voltage remains unchanged. In DC systems, parallel wiring is positive to positive (+ to +) and negative to negative (- to -). See also Series Connection. (PwN)

Passivation - A chemical reaction that eliminates the detrimental effect of electrically reactive atoms on a solar cell's surface.

Passive solar home - A house that utilizes part of the building as a solar collector, as opposed to active solar, such as PV. (SS)

Passive Solar Home - Home designed to use sunlight for direct heating and lighting, without circulating pumps or energy conversion systems. This is achieved through the use of energy efficient materials (such as windows, skylights and Trombe walls) and proper design and orientation of the home. (PwN)

Peak Demand/Load - The maximum energy demand or load in a specified time period.

Peak Load - Maximum load of electricity being used at any one point during the day. (PwN)

Peak power - Power generated by a utility unit that operates at a very low capacity factor; generally used to meet short-lived and variable high demand periods. (PVP)

Peak Power Current - Amperes produced by a photovoltaic module or array operating at the voltage of the I-V curve that will produce maximum power from the module.

Peak Power Point - Operating point of the I-V (current-voltage) curve for a solar cell or photovoltaic module where the product of the current value times the voltage value is a maximum.

Peak Power Tracking - see maximum power tracking.

Peak Sun Hours - The equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1,000 w/m2. For example, six peak sun hours means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would have been received had the irradiance for six hours been 1,000 w/m2.

Peak Watt - A unit used to rate the performance of solar cells, modules, or arrays; the maximum nominal output of a photovoltaic device, in watts (Wp) under standardized test conditions, usually 1,000 watts per square meter of sunlight with other conditions, such as temperature specified.

Phosphorous (P) - A chemical element, atomic number 15, used as a dopant in making n-type semiconductor layers.

Photocurrent - An electric current induced by radiant energy.

Photoelectric Cell - A device for measuring light intensity that works by converting light falling on, or reach it, to electricity, and then measuring the current; used in photometers.

Photoelectrochemical Cell - A type of photovoltaic device in which the electricity induced in the cell is used immediately within the cell to produce a chemical, such as hydrogen, which can then be withdrawn for use.

Photoelectrochemical cell - A special kind of photovoltaic cell in which the electricity produced is used immediately within the cell to produce a useful chemical product, such as hydrogen. The product material is continuously withdrawn from the cell for direct use as a fuel or as an ingredient in making other chemicals, or it may be stored and used subsequently. (PVP)

Photon - A particle of light that acts as an individual unit of energy.

Photon - Basic unit of light. A photon can act as either a particle or a wave, depending on how its activity is measured. The shorter the wavelength of a stream of photons, the more energy it possesses. This is why ultraviolet (UV) light is so destructive, while infrared (IR) is not. (PwN)

Photovoltaic(s) (PV) - Pertaining to the direct conversion of light into electricity.

Photovoltaic (PV) - the conversion of light into electricity. Photo means "light", voltaic means "electric." (SS)

Photovoltaic or PV - Photoelectric, light electric, or solar electric. Principal was discovered by the French physicist Edmund Becquerel in 1839; interestingly one of his relatives discovered the principal of atomic energy some years later. So PV predates nuclear power! It was not until scientists at Bell Labs in 1954 were working on silicon rectifiers ( diodes ) that the real potential of PV started to become clear. The space race of the late 50's forward gave PV's a niche that they have filled ever since. Because space has unlimited sunlight and PV's are autonomous power sources and are lightweight they have powered all of America's satellites, from the tiny Vanguard to the very large Skylab. Unfortunately the government spent very little on research and development to make better and cheaper PV's, though it spent billions to develop nuclear power. (IP)

Photovoltaic (PV) - Refers to the technology of converting sunlight directly into electricity through the use of photovoltaic (solar) cells. (PwN)

Photovoltaic (PV) Array - An interconnected system of PV modules that function as a single electricity-producing unit. The modules are assembled as a discrete structure, with common support or mounting. In smaller systems, an array can consist of a single module.

Photovoltaic Array - A system of interconnected PV modules acting together to produce a single electrical output. (PwN)

Photovoltaic (PV) Cell - The smallest semiconductor element within a PV module to perform the immediate conversion of light into electrical energy (direct current voltage and current). Also called a solar cell.

Photovoltaic Cell - The basic unit of a PV (solar) module. Crystalline photovoltaic cells produce an electrical potential of around 0.5 volts. The higher voltages typical in PV modules are achieved by connecting solar cells together in series. (PwN)

Photovoltaic (PV) Conversion Efficiency - The ratio of the electric power produced by a photovoltaic device to the power of the sunlight incident on the device.

Photovoltaic (PV) Device - A solid-state electrical device that converts light directly into direct current electricity of voltage-current characteristics that are a function of the characteristics of the light source and the materials in and design of the device. Solar photovoltaic devices are made of various semiconductor materials including silicon, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, and gallium arsenide, and in single crystalline, multicrystalline, or amorphous forms.

Photovoltaic (PV) Effect - The phenomenon that occurs when photons, the "particles" in a beam of light, knock electrons loose from the atoms they strike. When this property of light is combined with the properties of semiconductors, electrons flow in one direction across a junction, setting up a voltage. With the addition of circuitry, current will flow and electric power will be available.

Photovoltaic (PV) efficiency - The ratio of electric power produced by a cell at any instant to the power of the sunlight striking the cell. (PVP)

Photovoltaic (PV) Generator - The total of all PV strings of a PV power supply system, which are electrically interconnected.

Photovoltaic (PV) Module - The smallest environmentally protected, essentially planar assembly of solar cells and ancillary parts, such as interconnections, terminals, [and protective devices such as diodes] intended to generate direct current power under unconcentrated sunlight. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). [UL 1703]

Photovoltaic Module - Collection of solar cells joined as a unit within a single frame. Commonly called a “solar panel”. (PwN)

Photovoltaic (PV) Panel - often used interchangeably with PV module (especially in one-module systems), but more accurately used to refer to a physically connected collection of modules (i.e., a laminate string of modules used to achieve a required voltage and current).

Photovoltaic (PV) peak watt - Maximum "rated" output of a cell, module, or system. Typical rating conditions are 0.645 watts per square inch (1000 watts per square meter) of sunlight, 68 degrees F (20 degrees C) ambient air temperature and 6.2 x 10-3 mi/s (1 m/s) wind speed. (PVP)

Photovoltaic (PV) System - A complete set of components for converting sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including the array and balance of system components.

Photovoltaic System - Complete set of interconnected components, including a solar array, inverter, etc., designed to convert sunlight into usable electricity. (PwN)

Photovoltaic-Thermal (PV/T) System - A photovoltaic system that, in addition to converting sunlight into electricity, collects the residual heat energy and delivers both heat and electricity in usable form. Also called a total energy system.

Physical Vapor Deposition - A method of depositing thin semiconductor photovoltaic films. With this method, physical processes, such as thermal evaporation or bombardment of ions, are used to deposit elemental semiconductor material on a substrate.

P-I-N - A semiconductor photovoltaic (PV) device structure that layers an intrinsic semiconductor between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor; this structure is most often used with amorphous silicon PV devices.

Plates - A metal plate, usually lead or lead compound, immersed in the electrolyte in a battery.

P/N - A semiconductor photovoltaic device structure in which the junction is formed between a p-type layer and an n-type layer.

Pocket Plate - A plate for a battery in which active materials are held in a perforated metal pocket.

Point-Contact Cell - A high efficiency silicon photovoltaic concentrator cell that employs light trapping techniques and point-diffused contacts on the rear surface for current collection.

Polycrystalline - See Multicrystalline.

Polycrystalline Silicon - A material used to make photovoltaic cells, which consist of many crystals unlike single-crystal silicon.

Polycrystalline Solar Cell - Type of solar cell made from many small crystals (crystallites). Because of the numerous grain boundaries, devices that employ this design will operate with slightly reduced efficiency. Also known as multicrystalline solar cell. (PwN)

Power Conditioning - The process of modifying the characteristics of electrical power (for e.g., inverting direct current to alternating current).

Power Conditioning Equipment - Electrical equipment, or power electronics, used to convert power from a photovoltaic array into a form suitable for subsequent use. A collective term for inverter, converter, battery charge regulator, and blocking diode.

Power Conversion Efficiency - The ratio of output power to input power of the inverter.

Power Density - The ratio of the power available from a battery to its mass (W/kg) or volume (W/l).

Power Factor (PF) - The ratio of actual power being used in a circuit, expressed in watts or kilowatts, to the power that is apparently being drawn from a power source, expressed in volt-amperes or kilovolt-amperes.

Power factor - The ratio of the average power and the apparent volt-amperes. (PVP)

Primary Battery - A battery whose initial capacity cannot be restored by charging.

Projected Area - The net south-facing glazing area projected on a vertical plane.

P-Type Semiconductor - A semiconductor in which holes carry the current; produced by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with an electron acceptor impurity (e.g., boron in silicon).

Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM) Wave Inverter - A type of power inverter that produce a high quality (nearly sinusoidal) voltage, at minimum current harmonics.

Pulse-width-modulated (PWM) wave inverter (PWM) - PWM inverters are the most expensive, but produce a high quality of output signal at minimum current harmonics. The output voltage is very close to sinusoidal. (PVP)

PV - See photovoltaic(s).

Pyranometer - An instrument used for measuring global solar irradiance.

Pyrheliometer - An instrument used for measuring direct beam solar irradiance. Uses an aperture of 5.7° to transcribe the solar disc.

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Q

Quad - One quadrillion Btu (1,000,000,000,000,000 Btu).

Quad - A measure of energy equal to one trillion Btus; an energy equivalent to approximately 172 million barrels of oil. (PVP)

Qualification Test - A procedure applied to a selected set of photovoltaic modules involving the application of defined electrical, mechanical, or thermal stress in a prescribed manner and amount. Test results are subject to a list of defined requirements.

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R

Rated Battery Capacity - The term used by battery manufacturers to indicate the maximum amount of energy that can be withdrawn from a battery under specified discharge rate and temperature. See battery capacity.

Rated Module Current (A) - The current output of a photovoltaic module measured at standard test conditions of 1,000 w/m2 and 25 C cell temperature.

Rated Power - Rated power of the inverter. However, some units can not produce rated power continuously. See duty rating.

Reactive Power - The sine of the phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms in an alternating current system. See power factor.

Recombination - The action of a free electron falling back into a hole. Recombination processes are either radiative, where the energy of recombination results in the emission of a photon, or nonradiative, where the energy of recombination is given to a second electron which then relaxes back to its original energy by emitting phonons. Recombination can take place in the bulk of the semiconductor, at the surfaces, in the junction region, at defects, or between interfaces.

Rectifier - A device that converts alternating current to direct current. See inverter.

Recycle mark - A design of three arrows that make up a circle. This mark tells you that you can recycle the product. It can also mean that the material is made from recycled materials. (PVP)

Recycling - A way to reuse materials instead of just throwing them away. (PVP)

Regulator - Prevents overcharging of batteries by controlling charge cycle-usually adjustable to conform to specific battery needs.

Remote Systems - See stand-alone systems.

Remote systems - Systems off of the utility grid. (PVP)

Renewable Energy (RE) - Energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible (unlike, for example, fossil fuel, of which there is a finite supply). Renewable sources of energy include conventional hydroelectric power, wood, waste, geothermal, wind, photovoltaic, and solar-thermal energy. (PwN)

Renewable fuels - Fuels that can be easily made or "renewed." We can never use up renewable fuels. Types of renewable fuels are solar, wind, and hydropower energy. (PVP)

RES - Acronym for the Residential Experiment Stations. (PVP)

Reserve Capacity - The amount of generating capacity a central power system must maintain to meet peak loads.

Resistance (R) - The property of a conductor, which opposes the flow of an electric current resulting in the generation of heat in the conducting material. The measure of the resistance of a given conductor is the electromotive force needed for a unit current flow. The unit of resistance is ohms.

Resistive Voltage Drop - The voltage developed across a cell by the current flow through the resistance of the cell.

Reverse Current Protection - Any method of preventing unwanted current flow from the battery to the photovoltaic array (usually at night). See blocking diode.

Ribbon - A thin sheet of crystalline or multicrystalline material, such as silicon, produced in a continuous process by withdrawal from a molten bath of the parent material. (PVP)

Ribbon (Photovoltaic) Cells - A type of photovoltaic device made in a continuous process of pulling material from a molten bath of photovoltaic material, such as silicon, to form a thin sheet of material.

RMS - See root mean square.

Root Mean Square (RMS) - The square root of the average square of the instantaneous values of an ac output. For a sine wave the RMS value is 0.707 times the peak value. The equivalent value of alternating current, I, that will produce the same heating in a conductor with resistance, R, as a dc current of value I.

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S

Sacrificial Anode - A piece of metal buried near a structure that is to be protected from corrosion. The metal of the sacrificial anode is intended to corrode and reduce the corrosion of the protected structure.

Satellite Power System (SPS) - Concept for providing large amounts of electricity for use on the Earth from one or more satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit. A very large array of solar cells on each satellite would provide electricity, which would be converted to microwave energy and beamed to a receiving antenna on the ground. There, it would be reconverted into electricity and distributed the same as any other centrally generated power, through a grid.

Schottky Barrier - A cell barrier established as the interface between a semiconductor, such as silicon, and a sheet of metal.

Scribing - The cutting of a grid pattern of grooves in a semiconductor material, generally for the purpose of making interconnections.

Sealed Battery - A battery with a captive electrolyte and a resealing vent cap, also called a valve-regulated battery. Electrolyte cannot be added.

Seasonal Depth of Discharge - An adjustment factor used in some system sizing procedures which "allows" the battery to be gradually discharged over a 30-90 day period of poor solar insolation. This factor results in a slightly smaller photovoltaic array.

Seasonal energy-efficiency ratio (SEER) - The ratio of the total seasonal cooling requirement (measured in Btu) to the total seasonal Wh of energy used, expressed in terms of Btu/Wh. (The SEER rating equals 3.413 times the seasonal COP.) (PVP)

Secondary Battery - A battery that can be recharged.

Self-Discharge - The rate at which a battery, without a load, will lose its charge.

Self Discharge - The tendency of all electrochemical cells to lose energy due to internal chemical reactions within the cells. Also called local action. (IP)

Semiconductor - Any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current. Certain semiconductors, including silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide, and cadmium telluride, are uniquely suited to the photovoltaic conversion process.

Semicrystalline - See Multicrystalline.

Series - A connection from one cell or battery to another (or from one PV module to another), negative to positive, which results in twice the voltage. Note that the current stays the same when series interconnecting. (IP)

Series Connection - A way of joining photovoltaic cells by connecting positive leads to negative leads; such a configuration increases the voltage.

Series Connection - A wiring configuration where the current is given but one path to follow, thus increasing the voltage without changing the amperage. Series wiring is positive to negative (+ to -) or negative to positive (- to +). See also Parallel Connection. (PwN)

Series Controller - A charge controller that interrupts the charging current by open-circuiting the photovoltaic (PV) array. The control element is in series with the PV array and battery.

Series Regulator - Type of battery charge regulator where the charging current is controlled by a switch connected in series with the photovoltaic module or array.

Series Resistance - Parasitic resistance to current flow in a cell due to mechanisms such as resistance from the bulk of the semiconductor material, metallic contacts, and interconnections.

Shallow-Cycle Battery - A battery with small plates that cannot withstand many discharges to a low state-of-charge.

Shelf Life of Batteries - The length of time, under specified conditions, that a battery can be stored so that it keeps its guaranteed capacity.

Short-Circuit Current (Isc) - The current flowing freely through an external circuit that has no load or resistance; the maximum current possible.

Short-circuit current (Isc) - The current flowing freely from a photovoltaic cell through an external circuit that has no load or resistance; the maximum current possible. (PVP)

Short-Circuit Current (Isc) - The maximum current a PV cell can deliver into a short circuit. This number of Amps is directly proportional to the area of the cell and the intensity of the sunlight. This can be measured with an appropriate meter, or meter - shunt combination. (IP)

Shunt - A low value precision resistor used in parallel with a meter to increase the amount of current the meter can measure. (IP)

Shunt Controller - A charge controller that redirects or shunts the charging current away from the battery. The controller requires a large heat sink to dissipate the current from the short-circuited photovoltaic array. Most shunt controllers are for smaller systems producing 30 amperes or less.

Shunt Regulator - Type of a battery charge regulator where the charging current is controlled by a switch connected in parallel with the photovoltaic (PV) generator. Shorting the PV generator prevents overcharging of the battery.

Siemens Process - A commercial method of making purified silicon.

Silicon (Si) - A semi-metallic chemical element that makes an excellent semiconductor material for photovoltaic devices. It crystallizes in face-centered cubic lattice like a diamond. It's commonly found in sand and quartz (as the oxide).

Silicon (Si) - A chemical element, atomic number 14, semimetallic in nature, dark gray, an excellent semiconductor material. A common constituent of sand and quartz (as the oxide). Crystallizes in face-centered cubic lattice like a diamond. The most common semiconductor material used in making photovoltaic devices. (PVP)

Silicon (Si) - The most common semiconductor material used in the manufacture of PV cells. In the periodic table, it is element number 14, positioned between aluminum and phosphorus. (PwN)

Sine Wave - A waveform corresponding to a single-frequency periodic oscillation that can be mathematically represented as a function of amplitude versus angle in which the value of the curve at any point is equal to the sine of that angle.

Sine Wave Inverter - An inverter that produces utility-quality, sine wave power forms.

Single-Crystal Material - A material that is composed of a single crystal or a few large crystals.

Single-Crystal Silicon - Material with a single crystalline formation. Many photovoltaic cells are made from single-crystal silicon.

Single-Stage Controller - A charge controller that redirects all charging current as the battery nears full state-of-charge.

Solar Cell - see photovoltaic (PV) cell.

Solar Constant - The average amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth's upper atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays; equal to 1353 Watts per square meter or 492 Btu per square foot.

Solar Cooling - The use of solar thermal energy or solar electricity to power a cooling appliance. Photovoltaic systems can power evaporative coolers ("swamp" coolers), heat-pumps, and air conditioners.

Solar Energy - Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar radiation). The amount that reaches the earth is equal to o ne billionth of total solar energy generated, or the equivalent of about 420 trillion kilowatt-hours.

Solar-Grade Silicon - Intermediate-grade silicon used in the manufacture of solar cells. Less expensive than electronic-grade silicon.

Solar Insolation - See insolation.

Solar Irradiance - See irradiance.

Solar Noon - The time of the day, at a specific location, when the sun reaches its highest, apparent point in the sky; equal to true or due, geographic south.

Solar noon - That moment of the day that divides the daylight hours for that day exactly in half. To determine solar noon, calculate the length of the day from the time of sunset and sunrise and divide by two. (PVP)

Solar Panel - See photovoltaic (PV) panel.

Solar Panel - Common term used to describe a PV (solar) module. “Solar panel” refers to both photovoltaic modules used for making electricity, and solar hot water panels, used to augment a home’s heating system. (PwN)

Solar Resource - The amount of solar insolation a site receives, usually measured in kWh/m2/day, which is equivalent to the number of peak sun hours.

Solar Spectrum - The total distribution of electromagnetic radiation emanating from the sun. The different regions of the solar spectrum are described by their wavelength range. The visible region extends from about 390 to 780 nanometers (a nanometer is one billionth of one meter). About 99 percent of solar radiation is contained in a wavelength region from 300 nm (ultraviolet) to 3,000 nm (near-infrared). The combined radiation in the wavelength region from 280 nm to 4,000 nm is called the broadband, or total, solar radiation.

Solar Thermal Electric Systems - Solar energy conversion technologies that convert solar energy to electricity, by heating a working fluid to power a turbine that drives a generator. Examples of these systems include central receiver systems, parabolic dish, and solar trough.

Solar thermal electric - Method of producing electricity from solar energy by using focused sunlight to heat a working fluid, which in turn drives a turbogenerator. (PVP)

Space Charge - See cell barrier.

Specific Gravity - The ratio of the weight of the solution to the weight of an equal volume of water at a specified temperature. Used as an indicator of battery state-of-charge.

Specific Gravity, or SG - Is the ratio of a liquid's density to the density of water. Sulfuric acid is denser than water so therefore you can measure it with a battery hydrometer (tool that measures SG) and you can tell at what state of charge your cells are at. (IP)

Spinning Reserve - Electric power plant or utility capacity on-line and running at low power in excess of actual load.

Split-Spectrum Cell - A compound photovoltaic device in which sunlight is first divided into spectral regions by optical means. Each region is then directed to a different photovoltaic cell optimized for converting that portion of the spectrum into electricity. Such a device achieves significantly greater overall conversion of incident sunlight into electricity. See mulitjunction device.

Sputtering - A process used to apply photovoltaic semiconductor material to a substrate by a physical vapor deposition process where high-energy ions are used to bombard elemental sources of semiconductor material, which eject vapors of atoms that are then deposited in thin layers on a substrate.

Square Wave - A waveform that has only two states, (i.e., positive or negative). A square wave contains a large number of harmonics.

Square Wave Inverter - A type of inverter that produces square wave output. It consists of a direct current source, four switches, and the load. The switches are power semiconductors that can carry a large current and withstand a high voltage rating. The switches are turned on and off at a correct sequence, at a certain frequency.

Square wave inverter - The inverter consists of a dc source, four switches, and the load. The switches are power semiconductors that can carry a large current and withstand a high voltage rating. The switches are turned on and off at a correct sequence, at a certain frequency. The square wave inverter is the simplest and the least expensive to purchase, but it produces the lowest quality of power. (PVP)

Staebler-Wronski Effect - The tendency of the sunlight to electricity conversion efficiency of amorphous silicon photovoltaic devices to degrade (drop) upon initial exposure to light.

Staebler-Wronski effect - The tendency of amorphous silicon photovoltaic devices to lose efficiency upon initial exposure to light; named for Dr. David Staebler and Dr. Christopher Wronski; work performed at RCA. (PVP)

Stand-Alone System - An autonomous or hybrid photovoltaic system not connected to a grid. May or may not have storage, but most stand-alone systems require batteries or some other form of storage.

Stand-Alone - A solar electric system that operates without connection to the utility grid, or another supply of electricity. Typically, unused daylight energy production is stored in a battery bank to provide power at night. Stand-alone systems are used primarily in remote locations such as mountain areas, ocean platforms or communications towers. (PwN)

Stand-Off Mounting - Technique for mounting a photovoltaic array on a sloped roof, which involves mounting the modules a short distance above the pitched roof and tilting them to the optimum angle.

Standard Reporting Conditions (SRC) - A fixed set of conditions (including meteorological) to which the electrical performance data of a photovoltaic module are translated from the set of actual test conditions. [ASTM E 1036]

Standard Test Conditions (STC) - Conditions under which a module is typically tested in a laboratory.

Standard test conditions (STC) - Conditions under which a module is typically tested in a laboratory: (1) Irradiance intensity of 1000 W/square meter (0.645 watts per square inch), AM1.5 solar reference spectrum, and (3) a cell (module) temperature of 25 degrees C, plus or minus 2 degrees C (77 degrees F, plus or minus 3.6 degrees F). [IEC 1215] (PVP)

Standby Current - This is the amount of current (power) used by the inverter when no load is active (lost power). The efficiency of the inverter is lowest when the load demand is low.

Starved Electrolyte Cell - A battery containing little or no free fluid electrolyte.

State-of-Charge (SOC) - The available capacity remaining in the battery, expressed as a percentage of the rated capacity.

State Of Charge - A ratio, expressed in percent, of the energy remaining in a battery in relation to its capacity when full. (IP)

Storage Battery - A device capable of transforming energy from electric to chemical form and vice versa. The reactions are almost completely reversible. During discharge, chemical energy is converted to electric energy and is consumed in an external circuit or apparatus.

Stratification - A condition that occurs when the acid concentration varies from top to bottom in the battery electrolyte. Periodic, controlled charging at voltages that produce gassing will mix the electrolyte. See equalization.

String - A number of photovoltaic modules or panels interconnected electrically in series to produce the operating voltage required by the load.

Substrate - The physical material upon which a photovoltaic cell is applied.

Subsystem - Any one of several components in a photovoltaic system (i.e., array, controller, batteries, inverter, load).

Sulfation - A condition that afflicts unused and discharged batteries; large crystals of lead sulfate grow on the plate, instead of the usual tiny crystals, making the battery extremely difficult to recharge.

Sun tempering - A sun-tempered building is elongated in the east-west direction, with the majority of the windows on the south side. The area of the windows is generally limited to about 7% of the total floor area. A sun-tempered design has no added thermal mass beyond what is already in the framing, wall board, and so on. Insulation levels are generally high. (PVP)

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) - SMES technology uses the superconducting characteristics of low- temperature materials to produce intense magnetic fields to store energy. It has been proposed as a storage option to support large-scale use of photovoltaics as a means to smooth out fluctuations in power generation.

Superconductivity - The abrupt and large increase in electrical conductivity exhibited by some metals as the temperature approaches absolute zero.

Superconductivity - The pairing of electrons in certain materials when cooled below a critical temperature, causing the material to lose all resistance to electricity flow. Superconductors can carry electric current without any energy losses. (PVP)

Superstrate - The covering on the sunny side of a photovoltaic (PV) module, providing protection for the PV materials from impact and environmental degradation while allowing maximum transmission of the appropriate wavelengths of the solar spectrum.

Surge Capacity - The maximum power, usually 3-5 times the rated power, that can be provided over a short time.

System Availability - The percentage of time (usually expressed in hours per year) when a photovoltaic system will be able to fully meet the load demand.

System Operating Voltage - The photovoltaic array output voltage under load. The system operating voltage is dependent on the load or batteries connected to the output terminals.

System Storage - See battery capacity.

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T

Tare Loss - Loss caused by a charge controller. One minus tare loss, expressed as a percentage, is equal to the controller efficiency.

Temperature Compensation - A circuit that adjusts the charge controller activation points depending on battery temperature. This feature is recommended if the battery temperature is expected to vary more than ±5°C from ambient temperature.

Temperature Factors - It is common for three elements in photovoltaic system sizing to have distinct temperature corrections: a factor used to decrease battery capacity at cold temperatures; a factor used to decrease PV module voltage at high temperatures; and a factor used to decrease the current carrying capability of wire at high temperatures.

Thermal electric - Electric energy derived from heat energy, usually by heating a working fluid, which drives a turbogenerator. See solar thermal electric.' (PVP)

Thermal mass - Materials that store heat within a sunspace or solar collector. (PVP)

Thermal storage walls (masonry or water) - A thermal storage wall is a south-facing wall that is glazed on the outside. Solar heat strikes the glazing and is absorbed into the wall, which conducts the heat into the room over time. The walls are at least 8 in thick. Generally, the thicker the wall, the less the indoor temperature fluctuates. (PVP)

Thermophotovoltaic Cell (TPV) - A device where sunlight concentrated onto a absorber heats it to a high temperature, and the thermal radiation emitted by the absorber is used as the energy source for a photovoltaic cell that is designed to maximize conversion efficiency at the wavelength of the thermal radiation.

Thick-Crystalline Materials - Semiconductor material, typically measuring from 200-400 microns thick, that is cut from ingots or ribbons.

Thin Film - A layer of semiconductor material, such as copper indium diselenide or gallium arsenide, a few microns or less in thickness, used to make photovoltaic cells.

Thin Film Photovoltaic Module - A photovoltaic module constructed with sequential layers of thin film semiconductor materials. See amorphous silicon.

III-V (three-five) materials - Elemental materials that occupy groups III and V of the Periodic Table of the Elements. (PVP)

Tilt Angle - The angle at which a photovoltaic array is set to face the sun relative to a horizontal position. The tilt angle can be set or adjusted to maximize seasonal or annual energy collection (aka elevation).

Tilt Angle - The angle of inclination of a module measured from the horizontal. The most productive tilt angle is one in which the surface of the module is exactly perpendicular to the sun’s rays. (PwN)

Tin Oxide - A wide band-gap semiconductor similar to indium oxide; used in heterojunction solar cells or to make a transparent conductive film, called NESA glass when deposited on glass.

Total AC Load Demand - The sum of the alternating current loads. This value is important when selecting an inverter.

Total Harmonic Distortion - The measure of closeness in shape between a waveform and it's fundamental component.

Total Internal Reflection - The trapping of light by refraction and reflection at critical angles inside a semiconductor device so that it cannot escape the device and must be eventually absorbed by the semiconductor.

Tracking Array - A photovoltaic (PV) array that follows the path of the sun to maximize the solar radiation incident on the PV surface. The two most common orientations are (1) one axis where the array tracks the sun east to west and (2) two-axis tracking where the array points directly at the sun at all times. Tracking arrays use both the direct and diffuse sunlight. Two-axis tracking arrays capture the maximum possible daily energy.

Transformer - An electromagnetic device that changes the voltage of alternating current electricity.

Transmission lines - Transmit high-voltage electricity from the transformer to the electric distribution system. (PVP)

Tray Cable (TC) - may be used for interconnecting balance-of-systems.

Trickle Charge - A charge at a low rate, balancing through self-discharge losses, to maintain a cell or battery in a fully charged condition.

Two-Axis Tracking - A photovoltaic array tracking system capable of rotating independently about two axes (e.g., vertical and horizontal).

Tunneling - Quantum mechanical concept whereby an electron is found on the opposite side of an insulating barrier without having passed through or around the barrier.

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U

Ultraviolet - Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 4 to 400 nanometers.

Underground Feeder (UF) - May be used for photovoltaic array wiring if sunlight resistant coating is specified; can be used for interconnecting balance-of-system components but not recommended for use within battery enclosures.

Underground Service Entrance (USE) - May be used within battery enclosures and for interconnecting balance-of-systems.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) - The designation of a power supply providing continuous uninterruptible service. The UPS will contain batteries.

Utility-Interactive Inverter - An inverter that can function only when tied to the utility grid, and uses the prevailing line-voltage frequency on the utility line as a control parameter to ensure that the photovoltaic system's output is fully synchronized with the utility power.

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V

Vac - Volts ac (PVP)

Vacuum Evaporation - The deposition of thin films of semiconductor material by the evaporation of elemental sources in a vacuum.

Vacuum Zero - The energy of an electron at rest in empty space; used as a reference level in energy band diagrams.

Valence Band - The highest energy band in a semiconductor that can be filled with electrons.

Valence Level Energy/Valence State - Energy content of an electron in orbit about an atomic nucleus. Also called bound state.

Valence state; valence level energy, bound state - Energy content of an electron in orbit about an atomic nucleus. (PVP)

Varistor - A voltage-dependent variable resistor. Normally used to protect sensitive equipment from power spikes or lightning strikes by shunting the energy to ground.

Vdc - Volts dc (PVP)

Vented Cell - A battery designed with a vent mechanism to expel gases generated during charging.

Vertical Multijunction (VMJ) Cell - A compound cell made of different semiconductor materials in layers, one above the other. Sunlight entering the top passes through successive cell barriers, each of which converts a separate portion of the spectrum into electricity, thus achieving greater total conversion efficiency of the incident light. Also called a multiple junction cell. See multijunction device and split-spectrum cell.

Vmp - Voltage at maximum power (PVP)

Voc - Open-circuit voltage (PVP)

Volt (V) - A unit of electrical force equal to that amount of electromotive force that will cause a steady current of one ampere to flow through a resistance of one ohm.

Volt - A unit of electrical force, analogous to the water pressure within a garden hose. It is equal to the amount of electromotive force that will cause a steady current of one ampere to flow through a resistance of one ohm. (PwN)

Voltage - The amount of electromotive force, measured in volts, that exists between two points.

Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp) - The voltage at which maximum power is available from a photovoltaic module. [UL 1703]

Voltage Protection - Many inverters have sensing circuits that will disconnect the unit from the battery if input voltage limits are exceeded.

Voltage Regulation - This indicates the variability in the output voltage. Some loads will not tolerate voltage variations greater than a few percent.

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W

Wafer - A thin sheet of semiconductor (photovoltaic material) made by cutting it from a single crystal or ingot.

Wafer - A thin sheet of semiconductor material made by mechanically sawing it from a single-crystal or multicrystal ingot or casting. (PVP)

Watt - The rate of energy transfer equivalent to one ampere under an electrical pressure of one volt. One watt equals 1/746 horsepower, or one joule per second. It is the product of voltage and current (amperage).

Watt - Unit of electrical power used to indicate the rate of energy produced or consumed by an electrical device. One ampere of current flowing at the potential of one volt produces one watt of power. Wind turbines and PV modules are often rated in watts. (PwN)

Watt-hour (Wh) A unit of energy equal to one watt of power being used for one hour. (SS)

Watt-hour (Wh) - Unit of energy equal to one watt of power being produced or consumed for one hour. (PwN)

Waveform - The shape of the phase power at a certain frequency and amplitude.

Waveform - The shape of the curve graphically representing the change in the ac signal voltage and current amplitude, with respect to time. (PVP)

Wet Shelf Life - The period of time that a charged battery, when filled with electrolyte, can remain unused before dropping below a specified level of performance.

Wind Energy - The kinetic energy present in wind, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2). Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy into mechanical energy through the use of propeller blades, which in turn drive an alternator to produce electricity. (PwN)

Window - A wide band gap material chosen for its transparency to light. Generally used as the top layer of a photovoltaic device, the window allows almost all of the light to reach the semiconductor layers beneath.

Winston concentrator - A trough-type parabolic collector with one-axis tracking, developed by Roland Winston. (PVP)

Wire Types - See Article 300 of National Electric Code for more information.

Work Function - The energy difference between the Fermi level and vacuum zero. The minimum amount of energy it takes to remove an electron from a substance into the vacuum.

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X

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Y

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Z

Zenith Angle - the angle between the direction of interest (of the sun, for example) and the zenith (directly overhead).

Zone refining - Method of purifying solid rods by means of melting narrow zones through the rods. These zones are slowly moved from one end of the rod to the other, sweeping out the impurities. (PVP)

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